PART 1: DISINFORMATION

This is the first part of a series on Disinformation, Misinformation, and Malinformation. The purpose of these guides is to provide an in-depth look at each of these elements that are part of information operations used by countries as a strategy in hybrid warfare.

This week, we focus on disinformation. We will break down what disinformation is, what forms it takes, and the purposes of disinformation campaigns. Then, we will examine several clear examples of how aggressive states such as Russia and China use disinformation campaigns as a cost-effective tool in waging hybrid warfare on Western societies.

WHAT IS THE DEFINITION OF DISINFORMATION?

Disinformation refers to false or misleading information that is deliberately spread. The intent is to deceive and manipulate others with this fake information. It's different from misinformation because misinformation is spread unintentionally or due to some misunderstanding. Disinformation is crafted deliberately in a false manner to achieve a specific goal. This can be to manipulate public opinion, sow discord, undermine trust in public institutions, or as part of hybrid warfare.

The way disinformation is spread can also differ. It can be done through social media such as Facebook, Instagram, or the platform X. Other methods include traditional media such as newspapers or broadcasts. There can be videos, articles, pictures, or even misleading statements from public figures. For example, during elections, disinformation campaigns can spread accusations about certain candidates, such as criminal behavior or personal scandals. On the world stage, disinformation can be used to create confusion about geopolitical events, which can lead to miscommunications and potentially escalate tensions between countries.

The impact of disinformation can be severe. It can erode trust in reliable sources of information, create societal divisions, or even incite rioting and public violence. In recent times, the rapid pace at which disinformation can be created and spread has amplified its reach and effectiveness. We have seen this with the COVID-19 pandemic and vaccines, with the war in Ukraine, and around political figures worldwide.

Disinformation can be crafted in such a way that it exploits the emotional triggers and confirmation biases of individuals, making it hard to distinguish between credible sources and falsified content.

DISINFORMATION AS PART OF HYBRID WARFARE TACTICS 

Disinformation is crucial for modern hybrid warfare tactics. These are used to destabilize, manipulate, and influence adversaries and global perceptions. Hybrid warfare combines conventional military tactics with unconventional tools such as cyber attacks, economic pressures, and disinformation to achieve strategic objectives without open warfare. These campaigns can exploit societal divisions, vulnerabilities in digital communication channels, or public discord to weaken the target nation from within.

A notable example is Russia's disinformation campaign before the illegal annexation of Crimea in 2014. Russian state-backed media and online troll factories created false narratives about events in Ukraine, portraying the Ukrainian government as illegitimate and stoking fear among Russian-speaking residents in Crimea. This campaign distorted reality, justifying Russia's invasion. Such tactics continue today, which we will explore later.

Disinformation in hybrid warfare extends beyond military conflicts, influencing elections, economic decisions, policies, and public opinion. Both nation-states and non-state actors compete for influence on social media platforms to pursue their goals. Governments face significant challenges in detecting and countering these campaigns.

SOVIET ROOTS

The roots of modern disinformation tactics trace back to the Soviet Union and earlier. The Soviets developed and used propaganda and deceptive information as tools of statecraft. During the Cold War, the Soviet Union aimed to shape global perceptions and undermine Western democracies with sophisticated disinformation strategies. These involved creating and spreading false narratives through state-controlled media and covert operations. They often targeted political, military, and social issues.

One infamous example was the "Operation INFEKTION" campaign in the 1980s. It falsely claimed that the United States created the HIV/AIDS virus as a biological weapon. This disinformation spread through newspapers, magazines, and fake scientific journals to foster anti-American sentiment. The success of such campaigns relied on exploiting geopolitical tensions and amplifying conspiracy theories to manipulate public opinion and influence international relations. 

The legacy of Soviet disinformation continues to influence contemporary information warfare tactics.

HOW IS IT USED IN UKRAINE

Disinformation has played a significant role in the Ukraine war, particularly as part of Russia's strategy to influence perceptions and destabilize the region. Russia has employed various disinformation tactics to shape international narratives, manipulate public opinion, and justify its actions.

One prominent example is the spread of false narratives about the Ukrainian government and military, portraying them as aggressors or extremists. For instance, Russian President Vladimir Putin has accused Ukrainian President Volodymyr Zelenskyy of heading a "Nazi regime." These narratives aim to garner domestic and international support for Russia's illegal, full-scale invasion of Ukraine. 

Russian state-controlled media and online platforms have disseminated misleading information, fake news stories, and manipulated images to create a distorted view of the conflict. By using the terms "Nazis", "fascists", "Washington puppets" or "neo-Nazis" when referring to Ukrainians and the Ukrainian government, Russia also aims to make Ukrainians dehumanized in the eyes of the Russian population. This makes it easier for Putin to justify his costly and deadly war to the populace. 

Another prominent disinformation campaign has been to call this full-scale, tragic war as "special military operation". The Kremlin has also banned media outlets in Russia or anyone for that matter to use war to describe the conflict in Ukraine. However, after so many years of fighting and so many deaths, Russians have now started to call it exactly what it is: war. The thinking behind using the term "special military operation" was to abscond Russia of any international responsibilities (such as following the Geneva Convention or the rules of engagement) and to downplay the depth of the conflict to the Russian citizens.  

Furthermore, disinformation has been used to undermine Ukraine's credibility on the global stage and to sow division within Ukrainian society. Russia-backed disinformation campaigns have fueled mistrust in Ukrainian institutions, amplified ethnic and political tensions, and perpetuated conspiracy theories aimed at discrediting Ukraine's independence and legitimacy. A current disinformation campaign claims that Zelenskyy is a dictator and illegitimate president of Ukraine, as his term expired on May 20, 2024. However, under Ukrainian constitutional law, elections cannot be held during martial law. 

In response, Ukraine and its allies have engaged in efforts to counter disinformation through fact-checking initiatives, media literacy campaigns, and diplomatic efforts to expose and condemn Russia's information warfare tactics. The use of disinformation in the Ukraine war underscores its broader implications for international relations, cybersecurity, and the integrity of democratic processes.

HOW IS IT USED AGAINST THE WEST

Countries like Russia and China employ disinformation as a strategic tool against Western nations through various means. These can include exploiting digital platforms and societal vulnerabilities. This is to achieve geopolitical goals and undermine democratic institutions. Such efforts often involve sophisticated, state-sponsored campaigns that blend traditional propaganda techniques with modern technology and psychological manipulation.

Firstly, both Russia and China utilize state-controlled media outlets and social media platforms to disseminate misleading narratives and false information. They exploit these channels to propagate conspiracy theories, amplify divisive issues, and discredit political opponents both domestically and internationally. For instance, Russia has been implicated in spreading disinformation to influence elections in Western countries, supporting extremist groups, and fomenting societal unrest. The most prominent campaign involving Russian troll factories spreading lies and sowing discord and confusion in the 2016 United States presidential elections. 

Secondly, these countries leverage cyber operations to hack into sensitive databases, steal information, and manipulate online content. This includes the creation of fake social media accounts, bots, and trolls to artificially boost certain narratives or smear opponents. China, for example, has been accused of orchestrating coordinated disinformation campaigns aimed at shaping global perceptions about issues like human rights abuses, territorial disputes, and its economic policies.

Moreover, Russia and China exploit Western media and communication freedoms to their advantage, exploiting loopholes and using international platforms to amplify their disinformation efforts. By exploiting divisions within Western societies and capitalizing on existing distrust in institutions, these countries seek to weaken alliances, erode confidence in democratic processes, and ultimately enhance their own geopolitical influence.

While Russia's propaganda machine is mostly focused around the war in Ukraine, China spread disinformation in a more broad manner. China accuses the West of creating humanitarian crises, such as migrations or food and energy shortages. They blame Europe for the rise in prices for both energy and food, mostly due to the sanctions upheld towards Russia. Chinese propaganda frames these sanctions as an aggression towards Russia from the West, and not as a response to the horrific war waged in Europe by our terroristic Eastern neighbor. 

Countering these disinformation tactics requires a coordinated response. This can involve enhanced cybersecurity measures, media literacy education, fact-checking initiatives, and international cooperation. These will promote transparency and uphold democratic values in the face of concerted information warfare strategies.

HOW TO PREVENT BELIEVING DISINFORMATION 

Preventing the belief in disinformation requires a combination of personal vigilance, critical thinking skills, and societal resilience. To start, always verify the source of information before believing or sharing it, ensuring it comes from reputable news outlets or credible sources. Be cautious of unfamiliar websites or social media accounts without proven reliability. 

Cross-check information by consulting multiple sources and look for consensus among reputable outlets. Evaluate the evidence presented for any claim, as genuine information typically provides verifiable sources. Recognizing and managing personal biases is crucial, as disinformation often exploits emotional triggers and reinforces pre-existing beliefs, making individuals more susceptible to manipulation.

Promoting media literacy is another essential strategy. Educate yourself and others about media literacy and critical thinking skills to understand how information is produced, distributed, and consumed in the digital age. Schools, community organizations, and governments can play a pivotal role in promoting media literacy education from an early age. 

Additionally, report suspicious or misleading content on social media platforms and to fact-checking organizations. Engage in efforts to counter disinformation by sharing accurate information and correcting falsehoods with credible sources. Supporting independent and transparent media outlets that adhere to journalistic standards and ethics is also vital, as a diverse media landscape with rigorous editorial processes helps counteract the spread of disinformation.

Finally, advocate for policies and practices that promote transparency and accountability on social media platforms. Encourage these platforms to implement measures to detect and combat disinformation while respecting freedom of speech. By adopting these strategies, individuals and societies can reduce their vulnerability to believing and spreading disinformation, contributing to a more informed and resilient public discourse.

CONCLUSION

In today's interconnected world, the threat of disinformation is pervasive, originating from Cold War propaganda tactics and evolving into sophisticated digital campaigns used by countries like Russia and China to manipulate beliefs, sow discord, and achieve strategic goals. Combatting disinformation requires individuals to cultivate critical thinking, verify sources, and cross-check information. 

Media literacy education is crucial to empower citizens to navigate the complexities of today's information landscape. Meanwhile, societies must enhance cybersecurity, promote transparent media practices, and foster international cooperation to defend against malicious narratives. By embracing these strategies, we can uphold democratic values, mitigate the impact of disinformation, and preserve the integrity of public discourse worldwide.

References

• Government of Canada: Countering disinformation with facts - Russian invasion of Ukraine
• German Federal Ministry of the Interior and Community: Disinformation related to the Russian war of aggression against Ukraine
• Brookings: China and Russia are joining forces to spread disinformation
• The Polish Institute of International Affairs: Breaking Down Russian and Chinese Disinformation and Propaganda About the War in Ukraine
• United Nations: Countering disinformation