SWEDEN: The Life and Death of Dag Hammarskjöld

Dag Hammarskjöld, the second Secretary-General of the United Nations, was a man of immense integrity, dedication, and vision. His tragic death in 1961, while on a peace mission to the Congo, remains one of the most mysterious events in modern diplomatic history. More than six decades later, the circumstances surrounding his plane crash continue to be shrouded in controversy, spawning numerous theories and investigations.

Let's delve into the life, work, and enduring legacy of Dag Hammarskjöld, and explore the persistent questions that surround his untimely demise.

Dag Hammarskjöld

EARLY LIFE

Born on July 29, 1905, in Jönköping, Sweden, Dag Hammarskjöld was destined for a life of service. His father, Hjalmar Hammarskjöld, was Prime Minister of Sweden, and his mother, Agnes Almquist, came from a very established family as well. His mother was deeply religious. Raised in an environment that valued public service and intellectual pursuits, Dag inherited a deep sense of duty and a commitment to humanitarianism.

Hammarskjöld's academic brilliance was evident from an early age. He studied law, economics, and languages at the University of Uppsala and received his doctorate in economics in 1933. He also obtained a Licentiate of Philosophy. This diverse educational background equipped him with the knowledge and insights that would later shape his diplomatic career.

ON THE POLITICAL RISE

While completing his law degree, he took a job with the Unemployment Committee as an Assistant Secretary. From 1930 until 1934, he was promoted to Secretary of the Unemployment Committee. During his time there, he wrote a thesis on economics titled "The Spread of the Business Cycle" ("Konjunkturspridningen" in Swedish), which earned him a doctorate from Stockholm University. In 1936, he accepted a position as secretary at Sweden's central bank, called Riksbank, where he worked until 1941, when he served as chairman of the Riksbank's General Council.

Subsequently, Hammarskjöld held several other public service positions, building a successful career for himself. Primarily, he worked in various governmental roles with the Swedish Ministry of Finance and Ministry of Foreign Affairs. He helped create plans to ensure economic resilience after World War II ended and was a delegate to the Paris conference that established the Marshall Plan, as well as to various other economic-related conferences and events. Although Hammarskjöld worked in a cabinet with many Social Democrats, he never officially joined a political party.

In 1951, he served as vice chairman for the Swedish delegation to the United Nations General Assembly in Paris. The following year, he became chairman of the Swedish delegation to the General Assembly in New York. Two years later, he was chosen to take over his father's seat at the Swedish Academy.

THE UNITED NATIONS

His rise within the UN was swift. In 1953, Hammarskjöld was elected as the Secretary-General of the United Nations, succeeding Trygve Lie of Norway.

On November 10th, 1952, Trygve Lie announced his resignation. Months passed, and the Western powers and the Soviet Union were deadlocked in electing a successor. The main concern for the vetoing parties was finding someone who was unbiased towards either side. Various nominations were rejected by either side out of fear that the person was too aligned with the West or the Soviet Union.

Then, on March 10, 1953, during a consultation of the permanent members, French permanent representative Henry Hoppenot suggested four nominations, one of whom was Dag Hammarskjöld. He met these candidates at the Organisation for European Economic Cooperation.

Hammarskjöld had a reputation as a great economist and bureaucrat. However, he was relatively unknown in UN circles. He perfectly fit the superpowers' desire for someone who would focus on the administrative tasks of the UN and not engage heavily in political discussions. 

On March 31, 1953, the vote was held and passed with unanimous acceptance. China abstained from voting. The vote was rushed, and Hammarskjöld was not even aware of its occurrence. No one had informed him of the nomination.

In fact, Dag Hammarskjöld found out when a reporter called him to ask about his feelings regarding the nomination. He initially took it as an April Fools' joke. Later, he received an official wire asking him to accept the nomination.

Perturbed, he consulted with the Swedish government and his father. Hammarskjöld then sent word back to the United Nations Headquarters that he would accept the position.

Taking office during a period of Cold War tensions and decolonization struggles, Hammarskjöld faced formidable challenges. Yet, his calm demeanor, deep empathy, and unwavering commitment to peace endeared him to the international community.

Hammarskjöld was sworn in as Secretary-General on April 10, 1953. He was unanimously re-elected on September 26, 1957, for another term, which took effect on April 10, 1958.

LEGACY OF LEADERSHIP 

As Secretary-General, Hammarskjöld brought a new level of dynamism and effectiveness to the role. He believed in the UN's potential to mediate conflicts and promote global cooperation. His tenure saw him tackle crises around the world, from the Suez Crisis in 1956 to the Congo Crisis in the early 1960s.

One of Hammarskjöld's most significant achievements was his role in the creation of the United Nations Emergency Force (UNEF) in response to the Suez Crisis. This force, composed of troops from various countries, helped stabilize the situation and prevent further escalation of hostilities.

In the Congo, Hammarskjöld faced a complex and volatile situation. The newly independent nation was torn apart by internal strife and external interference. Despite the challenges, he remained resolute in his commitment to the Congolese people's right to self-determination.

In 1960, the Congo requested the help of United Nations to help de-escalate the Congo Crisis. This was due to Congo originally being under Belgian rule, where the Congolese were treated harshly and forced into slave-like conditions to exploit the country's resources, especially in mining. Dissent and rule-breaking were severely punished, with forced relocations of people to other parts of Congo where their labor was required. Belgium created a Congolese ruling class, educated and privileged, to maintain control.

Enter Patrice Lumumba, an intelligent and charismatic leader inspired by writers like Voltaire and Victor Hugo. Lumumba was well-read and spoke five languages, including French. His vision was to create an independent Congo shaped by pan-African beliefs, seeking support from other African nations.

After being elected as the first prime minister of independent Congo, Lumumba requested that UN mission troops be placed under his government's control, which Hammarskjöld refused.

Hammarskjöld made four trips to Congo to defuse the situation, but his efforts proved futile. By then, the Soviet Union deemed his efforts insufficient and demanded his resignation in September 1960. They proposed a three-man directorate to replace the Secretary-General, representing the interests of capitalist, socialist, and newly independent countries with a built-in veto.

In total, the United Nations sent about 20,000 peacekeepers to restore order in Congo-Kinshasa. Hammarskjöld's refusal to place them under Lumumba's control further angered the Soviets. Tensions escalated when Lumumba was captured and later executed on the orders of Moïse Kapenda Tshombe, president of the secessionist State of Katanga.

Lumumba's assassination prompted the United Nations to authorize peacekeeping troops to use force to halt the civil war. This forced Tshombe to flee to Zambia. Hammarskjöld's perceived lack of support for Lumumba's democratically elected government drew harsh criticism from socialist, communist, and other non-aligned countries in the UN. In the end, only Belgium and the United States supported him.

The final report on this crisis was 6,000 words long, dictated in one afternoon to his assistant, considered one of Hammarskjöld's most important works.

HAMMARSKJÖLD'S FINAL MISSION 

In 1961, Hammarskjöld embarked on what would be his final peace mission to the Congo. His goal was to negotiate a ceasefire and facilitate a peaceful resolution to the conflict between the United Nations blue hats and the Katangese troops. However, his mission would end in tragedy.

Shortly after midnight on September 18, 1961, Hammarskjöld's plane, a Douglas DC-6 named "Albertina," crashed near Ndola in Northern Rhodesia (now Zambia). All 16 people on board, including Hammarskjöld, perished in the crash. The circumstances of the crash immediately sparked speculation and controversy.

Almost immediately after news of Hammarskjöld's death broke, questions arose about the cause of the crash. The official investigation conducted by the Rhodesian authorities concluded that the crash was the result of pilot error, citing a number of factors such as poor visibility and miscommunication.

However, this explanation failed to satisfy many, including Hammarskjöld's own colleagues at the UN. Several theories emerged, ranging from the possibility of sabotage to claims of an assassination plot. One prominent theory suggests that Hammarskjöld's plane was shot down by a fighter jet piloted by Jan van Risseghem, a Belgian mercenary pilot and commander of the small Katanga Air Force. However, concrete evidence to support this theory remains elusive.

Hammarskjöld's death profoundly affected the United Nations as it sparked a succession crisis. With no clear succession plan in place, a new Secretary-General had to be voted in.

THE INVESTIGATION AND INQUIRES 

Over the years, multiple investigations and inquiries have been launched in an attempt to uncover the truth behind Hammarskjöld's death. In 2011, the United Nations General Assembly called for a reopening of the inquiry, citing new information and evidence. The Hammarskjöld Commission, an independent panel of experts, conducted a thorough review of the case and concluded that "significant new evidence" existed to warrant further investigation.

In 2017, a report by the Commission of Inquiry on the circumstances of Hammarskjöld's death stated that there was "convincing evidence" that the crash was caused by an "external attack or threat." This renewed interest in the case has kept the mystery alive, fueling ongoing debates and speculations.

HIS LEGACY LIVES ON 

Despite the unresolved questions surrounding his death, Dag Hammarskjöld's legacy endures. He is remembered as a champion of peace, a tireless advocate for the marginalized, and a skilled diplomat who sought to bridge divides and build understanding.

Countless awards, memorials, and institutions bear his name, honoring his contributions to international peace and diplomacy. The Dag Hammarskjöld Library at the UN headquarters stands as a testament to his commitment to knowledge and education.

While he was alive, Hammarskjöld lived a very stoic life. He enjoyed art and worked tirelessly at his job. He never married and did not seem to enjoy the company of the opposite sex too much. This has led to speculations about his sexuality. However, there have been no verified claims either way. He could have been asexual, and his belief was that "the Secretary-General of the UN should have an iron constitution and should not be married."

CONCLUSION 

Dag Hammarskjöld's death remains a poignant and unresolved chapter in the history of the United Nations. The circumstances surrounding his plane crash continue to spark intrigue and debate, reminding us of the complexities of international diplomacy and the sacrifices made in the pursuit of peace.

As we reflect on his life and legacy, we are reminded of the enduring importance of leadership, integrity, and unwavering commitment to the common good. Hammarskjöld's words resonate with particular poignancy: "The pursuit of peace and progress, with its trials and its errors, its successes and its setbacks, can never be relaxed and never abandoned."

References 

• Biographics: Dag Hammarskjold: The Man Who Built the United Nations
• United Nations: Dag Hjalmar Agne Carl Hammarskjöld
• Dag Hammarskjöld Foundation: About Hammarskjöld
• The Guardian: UK and US accused of obstructing inquiry into 1961 death of UN chief
• Ove Bring: Dag Hammarskjöld´s approach to the United Nations and internationallaw